Why portraits have fascinated us for millennia

The genre’s origins can be traced back to ancient times, when it served a number of functions, from exalting those in power to remembering the dead. The 1st and 2nd Centuries AD saw the Fayum area of Roman Egypt produce astonishingly naturalistic portraits that appeared on mummy cases. It is thought they may have hung in people’s homes during their lifetimes, and after death were placed over the head of their mummy in order to aid their journey to the afterlife. In Ancient Rome portrait sculpture was used to commemorate the dead or celebrate the achievements of the living. In both cases, attention was drawn to the person’s lineage, which was of great importance in Roman society. Imperial portraits were a valuable tool for propaganda. Placed in temples of the imperial cult, they were designed to inspire awe and subordination.

Although few examples of portraiture survive from the Middle Ages, those that do served similar purposes as those from classical times. The stunning life-sized mosaics of the Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna – which date from the 6th Century – are a particularly spectacular demonstration of power.

Stand-alone portraits of those in the middle ranks of society did not appear until the 15th Century with Jan van Eyck’s The Marriage of the Arnolfini from 1434 being one of the most renowned. One of the first standing double portraits in the history of art, the couple’s lifelike countenances combined with the mysterious symbolism hidden within the painting make it enduringly popular with visitors to London’s National Gallery.

It was during the Renaissance that portraiture truly came into its own. This has often been thought to be the result of a growing sense of individuality stimulated by an increasing interest in humanism, but Matthias Ubl, curator of the Rijksmuseum’s recent Remember Me exhibition, cautions against this overly simplistic viewpoint. “There were many factors helping portraiture to flourish at that time,” Ubl tells BBC Culture. “It was a period of innovation and stirring things up. Humanism became very important, so the self did too in a way, but that was not everything. The growth of cities saw the rise of a mercantile elite which wanted to mirror the nobility by having their portrait painted.”

And while these newly-wealthy businessmen were keen to show off their success, there were certain expectations that had to be abided by for the sake of propriety. “You still have the Church, you also have guild regulations, and they have to adhere to what society expected of them, whether that was being a virtuous woman or a good merchant,” says Ubl.

These good merchants can be seen in Hans Holbein’s Portrait of Georg Gisze and Jan Gossart’s Portrait of Jan Jacobsz Snoeck. Like most merchants of the era, they are likely to have traded in a diverse range of goods. However, any allusion to this merchandise is conspicuous by its absence, perhaps because it was too closely associated with manual labour. Instead they chose to show themselves lavishly dressed and surrounded by letters, documents and writing materials. It was status and wealth that they wished to emphasise.

Although the status and wealth of women were equally obvious in the fine clothing and jewellery they wore in their portraits, it was their beauty and virtue that patriarchal expectations forced them to emphasise, the former often being thought of as a physical manifestation of the latter. Even someone as powerful as Queen Elizabeth I knew her authority rested in no small part on her image as the “Virgin Queen”, married to England. In the Armada Portrait by an unknown artist (currently on display at Queen’s House, London) which was painted to celebrate the defeat of the invading Spanish navy, her hand rests confidently on a globe. Her bodice is encrusted with pearls, an appropriately sea-grown emblem of virginity.  Notable exceptions to that rule were self-portraits by female artists such as Catharina van Hemessen’s Self Portrait at the Easel from 1548, in which she portrays herself working at her craft. “Her portrait is the earliest we know showing an artist painting at an easel. It’s interesting that it was a female artist when they were so rare,” notes Ubl.

Portraiture’s growing importance was solidified in the 17th Century when the French Royal Academy created a hierarchy of genres and placed it second only to history painting. The assumption was that it would document the great and the good, and thus serve as an accompaniment to the highest of all genres. This newly designated role for portraiture was behind the formation of the earliest portrait galleries, such as Charles Willson Peale’s Gallery of Illustrious Personages which opened in Philadelphia in the 1770s, and featured many figures who had signed the Declaration of Independence. The UK’s National Portrait Gallery followed in 1856 with the very first work to enter the collection being a portrait of William Shakespeare.

Although these galleries only collected portraits of those they considered to be notable, with all the class, sex and race biases that this inevitably involved, outside their walls the genre was becoming ever more diverse. As the 19th Century progressed, portraiture became increasingly associated with the rising bourgeoisie. Their perceived vanity was mocked by many writers and critics but the rise in this form of portrait was indicative of the major social and political changes sweeping throughout western Europe, which saw the middle classes gaining more power and influence as monarchs were forced to bow to the authority of parliaments. The advent of photography was an important factor in democratising who could be portrayed but so too were changing views about the roles of individuals in society. Artists themselves played a major part in deciding who was worthy of depiction, boldly challenging social conventions as they did so.

The self portrait has of course also been an important part of artistic expression. Van Gogh’s iconic Self Portrait with Bandaged Ear, painted after he cut off part of his ear following an argument with Gauguin, is a powerful demonstration of his determination to continue painting despite the trauma. It takes centre stage at the Courtauld’s current exhibition of his self-portraits.

‘Fellowship of human beings’

Paula Modersohn-Becker, recently the subject of a major retrospective at the Schirn Kunsthalle in Frankfurt, also famously made herself the subject of her portraits, along with other women, children and the local peasantry. Influenced by the Fayum mummy portraits which she discovered in Paris around 1905, her portraits have a psychological intensity rare in depictions of women at the time. Although her choice of models was at least partly down to convenience, she nevertheless treats the humblest of subjects with the utmost dignity. “They were the poorest in society and she gave them an air of timelessness, almost holiness,” says curator Ingrid Pfeiffer.

Modersohn-Becker’s almost pantheistic love of nature is evident throughout her work including in her most famous painting Self Portrait on the Sixth Wedding Anniversary painted in 1906 where she appears nude from the waist up. Although she appears to be pregnant, she was not. “Her belly is a symbol of fertility, both human and artistic,” says Pfeifer. Modersohn-Becker was acutely aware of her talent but at the same time knew her subject matter meant the work could never be exhibited. “Nobody saw it during her lifetime, not even (her husband) Otto. She knew she was painting something completely taboo,” says Pfeiffer.

Like Modersohn-Becker, 20th-Century artist Alice Neel was unafraid to challenge convention. Rejecting the abstract expressionism that dominated the artworld at the time, she saw portraiture as a way in which to create a visual history of her era. Instinctively drawn to those on the margins of society she was able to critique the circumstances they found themselves in while still portraying them with dignity. “For her it’s a way of changing society,” says Lucía Agirre, who curated the recent exhibition of Neel’s portraits at the Guggenheim in Bilbao.

“She had a special empathy with her sitters. Usually she chose people she really liked, kids in the street or activists or her friends who were communist writers. For her these people have something to say,” explains Agirre. Neel had a particular affinity for the emotional and physical struggles of women, especially deprived women such as herself, and did not shy away from subjects that were taboo, including the domestic abuse of her neighbour Peggy. “In 1949 she made this beautiful portrait of Peggy, and you see the marks on her face but at the same time she gives her dignity. At that time it was something you just didn’t talk about,” says Agirre.

Although Neel did not gain recognition for her ground-breaking portraits until relatively late in her career, their documentary and democratic nature reveals the continuing relevance of portraiture, as well as the multiple functions that portraits can serve. They commemorate, celebrate, and show us who we were – and who we are now.

Past collecting practices combined with the fact that many notable figures never had the opportunity to be painted or photographed means that portrait galleries can never hope to be wholly representative of a nation’s past, but the closer we get to the present, the more inclusive the representation becomes. “Our criteria for admissions is much broader now. It goes beyond political, religious and legal figures. It’s more democratic and today we celebrate different forms of achievement,” says Smith. And certain historical biases can be addressed.

The lack of representation of women is something the National Portrait Gallery is seeking to tackle while it is closed for refurbishment. Research is being done into women already in the collection and new acquisitions will be made. With such a vast range of portraits to draw on – there are 12,000 in the primary collection but the reference collection is around 400,000 – being asked to select highlights is a virtually impossible task. But when asked to do so, Smith’s choices emphasise the unique nature of portraiture and the reasons for its enduring hold on the public’s imagination. Hans Holbein’s drawing of Henry VII and Henry VIII, a preparatory study for a painting now lost, and The Ditchley Portrait of Elizabeth I, transport us into the orbit of some of the most celebrated monarchs in British history. They are also magnificent works of art in their own right.

The portrait of William Shakespeare and that of the Brontë sisters by their brother Branwell, which Smith also chooses, are not. However, they are some of the most popular with the public, simply because they offer a means of connection with such well-loved literary figures. Laura Knight’s Self Portrait with Model is chosen as it is “a really key work for the history of women in the arts ” while of the more contemporary commissions Smith selects Malala’s portrait by Shirin Neshat which has been a huge draw for visitors.

And of course, beyond the great and the good, the humblest among us have the chance to be celebrated every year in the BP Portrait Award, although that is currently on hold while the gallery is closed. “It’s hugely popular because the people in that show are ordinary people. It could be your sister, your brother or some model you discovered on the street and found interesting,” says Smith.

“It’s that fellowship of human beings. Whereas in the past it was really a mark of rank or status or celebrity, I think now portraiture is more about existentialism. It’s about psychology, who they are and how they fit into society. It’s about identity,” says Smith. Whether Emperor, actor, activist or everyday person on the street, that is something we all share – and explains why portraiture will never cease to command our attention.

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